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Ali

The ten to whom Paradise was promised (Ali)
The ten to whom Paradise was promised (Ali) Image: Wikimedia Commons. عبدالعزيز علي / Public domain

Ali is a disambiguation-prone name most prominently associated with Ali ibn Abi Talib (c. 600 – 661 CE), the fourth Rashidun caliph and the first Shia Imam. He was the cousin and son-in-law of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, and is a central figure in the early history of Islam. The source material for this article describes this historical personage rather than any contemporary individual.

Key Facts

Full name Ali ibn Abi Talib (عليّ بن أبي طالب)
Born c. 600 CE
Died 661 CE (assassinated)
Parents Abu Talib ibn Abd al-Muttalib; Fatima bint Asad
Spouse Fatima, daughter of Muhammad
Office Fourth Rashidun Caliph (656–661 CE)
Religious status First Imam in Shia Islam; last of the rashidun in Sunni Islam
Shrine Najaf, Iraq
Famous compilation Nahj al-balagha

Background

Ali was born in Mecca to Abu Talib ibn Abd al-Muttalib and Fatima bint Asad, and was raised in the household of his cousin Muhammad. He was among the first to accept Muhammad's teachings and played a pivotal role during the early years of Islam, when Muslims faced severe persecution in Mecca.

After the hijra (migration) to Medina in 622 CE, Muhammad gave his daughter Fatima in marriage to Ali and swore a pact of brotherhood with him. During this period Ali served as Muhammad's secretary and deputy, and was the flag-bearer of his army.

The Ghadir Khumm Episode

In 632 CE, Muhammad uttered a much-discussed statement at Ghadir Khumm: "Whoever I am his mawla, then Ali is his mawla." The Arabic word mawla is polysemous, and its interpretation is disputed. Shia Muslims understand it as Muhammad investing Ali with religious and political authority, while Sunni Muslims read it as an expression of friendship and rapport.

Period under the First Three Caliphs

When Muhammad died in 632 CE, a group of Muslims gathered in Ali's absence and appointed Abu Bakr (r. 632–634) as leader. Ali eventually relinquished his claim and withdrew from public life during the reigns of Abu Bakr and Umar (r. 634–644). His refusal to follow some of their practices is said to have cost him the caliphate when the electoral council chose Uthman (r. 644–656) as Umar's successor. Ali was critical of Uthman, who was widely accused of nepotism and corruption, but he also repeatedly mediated between the caliph and provincial dissidents.

Caliphate (656–661 CE)

Following Uthman's assassination in June 656, Ali was elected caliph in Medina. His rule was immediately challenged by two rebellions ostensibly seeking vengeance for Uthman:

  • Battle of the Camel (656): The triumvirate of Talha, Zubayr (both companions of Muhammad) and Muhammad's widow Aisha captured Basra in Iraq, but were defeated by Ali.
  • Battle of Siffin (657): Mu'awiya, whom Ali had removed from the governorship of Syria, fought Ali to an inconclusive end. The ensuing arbitration process failed and alienated a section of Ali's supporters.
  • Battle of Nahrawan (658): The disaffected supporters formed the Kharijites, who later terrorised the public and were crushed by Ali.

Assassination and Aftermath

Ali was assassinated in 661 CE by the Kharijite dissident Ibn Muljam. His death paved the way for Mu'awiya to seize power and found the dynastic Umayyad Caliphate.

Timeline

Year (CE) Event
c. 600 Birth in Mecca
622 Hijra to Medina; marriage to Fatima; pact of brotherhood with Muhammad
632 Ghadir Khumm declaration; death of Muhammad; Abu Bakr appointed caliph
656 Elected caliph after Uthman's assassination; Battle of the Camel
657 Battle of Siffin against Mu'awiya
658 Battle of Nahrawan against the Kharijites
661 Assassinated by Ibn Muljam

Significance

Ali is revered for his courage, honesty, unbending devotion to Islam, magnanimity, and equal treatment of all Muslims. For his admirers he is the archetype of uncorrupted Islam and of pre-Islamic chivalry.

  • Sunni view: Regarded as the last of the rashidun ("rightly-guided") caliphs.
  • Shia view: Venerated as the first Imam and the rightful religious and political successor to Muhammad. His place is said to be second only to Muhammad in Shia Muslim culture.

The shrine of Ali in Najaf, Iraq, is a major destination for Shia pilgrimage. His legacy has been collected and studied in numerous works, the most famous being Nahj al-balagha.

References